function r(e){return a.find(t=>t.slug===e)}function o(e){return e.flatMap(t=>{const i=r(t);return i?[i]:[]})}const a=[{slug:"bill-of-lading",term:"Bill of Lading (B/L)",shortDefinition:"The primary ocean freight document serving as a receipt of shipment, contract of carriage, and document of title.",fullDefinition:"A Bill of Lading (B/L or BOL) is issued by the ocean carrier or freight forwarder and performs three simultaneous legal functions: it is a receipt confirming the carrier has accepted the cargo in described condition; it is a contract of carriage stating the terms of transport; and it is a negotiable document of title that controls who can claim the cargo at destination. Types: Ocean B/L (Master B/L) — issued by the shipping line to the freight forwarder; House B/L — issued by the forwarder to the shipper in LCL (groupage) shipments. An original B/L must be surrendered at the destination port to release the cargo, unless a Sea Waybill (non-negotiable) is used. The B/L is critical for letter of credit payments and for Russian customs clearance. Always verify the B/L draft carefully — errors in shipper/consignee names, HS code, or cargo description are costly to correct after sailing.",examples:["MAEU12345678 — Maersk B/L for 1×40HC container Shanghai to Saint Petersburg"],related:["sea-waybill","fcl","lcl","incoterms-fob"]},{slug:"fcl",term:"FCL (Full Container Load)",shortDefinition:"A shipment occupying an entire ocean container — 20DC, 40DC, or 40HC — booked and sealed by one shipper.",fullDefinition:"In FCL shipping, one shipper occupies the entire container. The container is loaded at the origin factory or warehouse, sealed, and transported to the destination without opening in transit. Container types: 20DC (20-foot Dry Container) — approximately 25 m³, up to 28 tonnes; 40DC — approximately 67 m³, up to 27 tonnes; 40HC (40-foot High Cube) — approximately 76 m³, up to 26.5 tonnes, the most common for consumer goods. FCL becomes cost-effective from approximately 12–15 CBM compared to LCL groupage. Pricing is a flat rate per container, regardless of how full it is, which means FCL is more economical when the container is well-utilized. Additional charges in FCL: Terminal Handling Charge (THC) at origin and destination ports, documentation fee (B/L issuance fee), and detention/demurrage if the container is not returned within free days.",examples:["40HC container Guangzhou → Moscow: flat FCL rate $2,400, regardless of 50 or 76 m³ used"],related:["lcl","cbm","bill-of-lading","detention-demurrage"]},{slug:"lcl",term:"LCL (Less than Container Load)",shortDefinition:"Consolidated ocean shipping where multiple shippers share one container, each paying per CBM or freight ton of space used.",fullDefinition:"LCL (also called groupage or consolidation) is the standard option for shipments under 10–12 CBM. A forwarder or NVOCC consolidates cargo from multiple shippers into one container, then issues a House B/L to each. The freight rate is charged per CBM (cubic meter) or freight ton — whichever is higher. Freight ton: max(actual CBM, actual tonnes). LCL transit time is longer than FCL by 3–7 days due to consolidation at the Container Freight Station (CFS) at origin and deconsolidation at destination. Risk: if any other cargo in the same container triggers a customs inspection or hold, your shipment may be delayed. LCL is ideal for: first test orders, seasonal supplementary orders, and businesses whose volumes are below the FCL break-even threshold.",examples:["3 CBM sample order from Shenzhen → LCL consolidated to 40HC → House B/L issued to importer"],related:["fcl","cbm","nvocc","freight-forwarder"]},{slug:"cbm",term:"CBM (Cubic Meter)",shortDefinition:"The standard unit of volume measurement in international freight; 1 CBM = 1 m³; used to price LCL shipments.",fullDefinition:"CBM (Cubic Meter) is the fundamental volumetric unit in ocean and air freight. For LCL ocean freight, the chargeable quantity is the greater of actual volume (CBM) or freight tonnes (1 tonne = 1 CBM for ocean; 1 CBM = 167 kg for ocean's weight-to-volume ratio). For air freight, volumetric weight is calculated differently: length × width × height (cm) ÷ 6,000 = volumetric kg. How to measure a box: multiply length × width × height in metres. Example: a box 60×40×50 cm = 0.6 × 0.4 × 0.5 = 0.12 CBM. Common mistakes: forgetting to add pallet volume (typically adds 10–15%), measuring inner dimensions rather than outer, or miscalculating multiple units. When requesting an LCL quote, always provide: total CBM, total gross weight (kg), and number of packages — this determines the chargeable quantity.",examples:["10 boxes × 0.12 CBM = 1.2 CBM total; at 80 kg gross → max(1.2 CBM, 0.08 tonnes) → pay for 1.2 CBM"],related:["lcl","fcl","freight-rate"]},{slug:"incoterms-fob",term:"FOB (Free on Board)",shortDefinition:"Incoterms 2020 rule: seller is responsible until goods are loaded on board the vessel at the named port; all risk and cost pass to the buyer from that moment.",fullDefinition:"FOB is the most widely used Incoterms rule in China trade. Under FOB, the seller's obligations end when the goods are loaded on board the vessel at the named port of shipment. From that point, the buyer (importer) bears all risk of loss or damage and pays for: ocean freight, marine insurance, destination terminal handling, and import customs clearance. FOB price in the invoice represents: cost of goods + inland transport to the Chinese port + export customs clearance in China. To calculate the Russian customs value from FOB: add ocean freight and insurance to get the CIF value. The buyer's advantage of FOB: full control over choice of freight forwarder and freight rate negotiation. FOB applies only to sea or inland waterway transport. For other transport modes, FCA is the equivalent. Under Incoterms 2020, FCA allows for issuance of an on-board B/L, which is important for letter of credit transactions.",examples:["FOB Shanghai: supplier loads container, buyer arranges freight forwarder from Shanghai to Moscow"],related:["incoterms-cif","incoterms-dap","incoterms-ddp","freight-forwarder"]},{slug:"incoterms-cif",term:"CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight)",shortDefinition:"Incoterms 2020 rule: seller pays freight and provides minimum insurance to the named destination port, but risk transfers to the buyer at the port of loading.",fullDefinition:"CIF is frequently misunderstood because the seller pays freight yet the buyer bears risk from the same point as FOB — when goods are loaded on board at the origin port. Under CIF, the seller must: contract and pay for ocean freight to the named destination port; and provide cargo insurance at minimum coverage (Institute Cargo Clauses Condition C, minimum 110% of CIF value). The buyer receives: the goods at the destination port, the B/L, insurance certificate, and commercial invoice. Customs value implication: CIF invoice price = customs value directly (no need to add freight, it is already included). Insurance consideration: CIF minimum insurance (Condition C) covers only major perils — not theft, contamination, or handling damage. Importers are strongly advised to arrange additional Condition A (All Risks) coverage. Recommendation: FOB gives buyers more control over freight rates; CIF is convenient for first-time importers who want fewer logistics decisions.",examples:["CIF Vladivostok $15,000 — customs value = $15,000 without adding freight separately"],related:["incoterms-fob","incoterms-dap","cargo-insurance"]},{slug:"incoterms-dap",term:"DAP (Delivered at Place)",shortDefinition:"Incoterms 2020 rule: seller delivers to a named destination in the buyer's country; import customs clearance and duties remain the buyer's responsibility.",fullDefinition:"Under DAP, the seller is responsible for transport, insurance, and delivery to the agreed place in the destination country — typically the buyer's warehouse. The seller does not clear import customs or pay import duties; that remains with the buyer. This makes DAP a practical choice when the supplier has reliable logistics partners, and the buyer wants to retain control of customs clearance and recover import VAT. For imports into Russia: DAP is generally preferable to DDP because the buyer files their own customs declaration, receives the official ДТ (Declaration on Goods), and can recover the 20% import VAT as input tax. The customs value under DAP: theoretically the value up to the Russian border. In practice, if the DAP invoice price covers delivery to a Russian warehouse, customs may include all costs in the base. Best practice: request that the supplier separate the FOB price from freight charges in the invoice to simplify customs value calculation.",examples:["DAP Moscow warehouse: supplier arranges full transport, buyer handles Russian customs and pays duties"],related:["incoterms-fob","incoterms-ddp","customs-clearance"]},{slug:"incoterms-ddp",term:"DDP (Delivered Duty Paid)",shortDefinition:"Incoterms 2020 rule: seller takes maximum responsibility — delivers to the buyer's premises with all import duties and taxes paid.",fullDefinition:"DDP represents the seller's maximum obligation under Incoterms. The seller must deliver the goods to the named place in the destination country, clear import customs, pay all import duties and VAT. For buyers, DDP appears attractive ('everything included'), but in the China-to-Russia trade context it carries significant risks: many suppliers offering DDP use non-compliant schemes — undervalued customs declarations or payments made outside official channels. The consequence: the buyer has no official Russian customs declaration (ДТ) and therefore cannot recover import VAT (20% of goods value) as input tax credit. This is an irreversible financial loss for OSNO-registered companies. When DDP is acceptable: small test orders where VAT recovery is not material; or when the supplier uses a properly licensed Russian customs broker and provides a full official ДТ. Always verify before committing to DDP.",examples:["DDP via grey scheme: convenient, but no ДТ = 20% VAT loss. DDP via licensed broker: legal, full documents"],related:["incoterms-dap","incoterms-fob","customs-clearance","import-vat-russia"]},{slug:"freight-forwarder",term:"Freight Forwarder",shortDefinition:"A company that arranges international cargo transportation on behalf of shippers — booking carriers, managing documentation, and coordinating the logistics chain.",fullDefinition:"A freight forwarder (transport agent) does not physically transport cargo but organizes the entire logistics chain: booking container space or air cargo capacity with carriers, preparing and managing transport documents (B/L, AWB), arranging origin customs clearance in the exporting country, coordinating storage and inland transport, and tracking shipment status. A full-service forwarder like Avalog combines forwarding with destination customs brokerage — providing a single point of contact from calculation to warehouse delivery. Forwarders are regulated under national licensing frameworks; in Russia they operate under ФГУП or private licenses. Difference from a customs broker: a broker is specifically accredited to file customs declarations; a forwarder is the logistics organizer. Many companies perform both roles. When selecting a forwarder, check: accreditation, experience with your HS code category, transparency of quote (all-inclusive vs. surprise surcharges), and real-time tracking capability.",examples:["Avalog acts as forwarder: receives cargo in Shanghai, arranges FCL to SPb, files Russian customs, delivers to Moscow warehouse"],related:["nvocc","bill-of-lading","customs-broker","fcl","lcl"]},{slug:"customs-broker",term:"Customs Broker",shortDefinition:"A licensed professional authorized to file customs declarations and manage customs clearance on behalf of importers and exporters.",fullDefinition:"A customs broker (in Russia: таможенный представитель) is a company or individual licensed by the national customs authority (Russia: ФТС — Federal Customs Service) to prepare and file customs declarations on behalf of declarants. Requirements for Russian customs broker licensing: inclusion in the ФТС register, financial security (≥20 million rubles insurance or bank guarantee), qualified staff with customs specialist certification. Services: classification of goods by HS code (ТН ВЭД), calculation of customs duties and VAT, preparation and electronic submission of the customs declaration (ДТ), interaction with customs on document requests, KTS (customs value adjustments), and supporting inspections. Important: the customs broker is legally responsible for the accuracy of their professional work; the declarant (importer) is responsible for the accuracy of the information they provide to the broker. Legally, the importer remains liable for the correctness of the declaration. When working with a forwarder, customs brokerage is often included in the end-to-end service.",examples:["Customs broker classifies imported electronics under HS 8471.30, calculates 0% duty and 20% VAT, files ДТ electronically"],related:["freight-forwarder","customs-declaration","hs-code"]},{slug:"hs-code",term:"HS Code (Harmonized System Code)",shortDefinition:"The international 6-digit product classification code used worldwide to determine customs duty rates and regulatory requirements.",fullDefinition:"The Harmonized System (HS) is an international nomenclature developed by the World Customs Organization (WCO) and used by over 200 countries. The first 6 digits are universal. Countries extend it nationally: Russia uses a 10-digit version called ТН ВЭД ЕАЭС (the EAEU unified tariff nomenclature). The HS code for a product determines: import duty rate, applicable VAT rate (in Russia: 0%, 10%, or 20%), required permits and licenses, and any bans or restrictions. HS code errors are the most common and costly customs mistakes. An incorrect code can mean: wrong duty rate (over or underpayment), missing required certificates resulting in cargo detention, and penalties of 50–200% of unpaid duties. For contested classification, importers can request a Preliminary Classification Ruling (ПКР) from Russian customs — a legal binding determination valid for 3 years. Always verify the HS code with your customs broker before the first shipment of any new product.",examples:["8471.30.000.0 — portable computers, 0% duty in Russia; 6203.42.310 — men's cotton trousers, 12% duty"],related:["customs-broker","customs-declaration","incoterms-fob"]},{slug:"etd-eta",term:"ETD and ETA",shortDefinition:"ETD (Estimated Time of Departure) — planned vessel departure date; ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival) — planned arrival date at destination port.",fullDefinition:"ETD and ETA are the two anchor dates in ocean freight planning. ETD: the date the vessel is scheduled to leave the port of loading. In practice, 'rolling' (a vessel departure being moved to the next sailing due to space or operational issues) is common and can delay ETD by 1–7 days without prior notice. ETA: the scheduled arrival at the destination port. Deviations of 3–14 days from ETA are normal, especially on long routes. Current ETA can be tracked via the shipping line's website or AIS vessel tracking using the IMO number. Critical distinction: ETA is NOT the date you receive your goods. From vessel arrival to warehouse receipt, add: 1–2 days for vessel discharge, 1–2 days movement to temporary storage warehouse, 1–5 days for customs clearance (longer if inspection is requested). Total realistic buffer: 7–14 days after ETA. When planning inventory replenishment, use ETA + 10 days as your conservative estimated delivery date.",examples:["ETD Shanghai 2026-06-10, ETA Saint Petersburg 2026-07-20 (40-day ocean leg); delivery to Moscow warehouse ~2026-08-03"],related:["fcl","detention-demurrage","cargo-tracking"]},{slug:"awb",term:"AWB (Air Waybill)",shortDefinition:"The transport document for air cargo, equivalent to an ocean Bill of Lading but non-negotiable — it cannot be used as a document of title.",fullDefinition:"An Air Waybill is issued by an airline or freight forwarder for air shipments. Unlike an ocean B/L, an AWB is non-negotiable: it identifies the consignee by name and cannot be transferred to a third party by endorsement. This means: the air carrier releases cargo to the named consignee without requiring surrender of the original document, enabling faster cargo release than ocean freight. Two types: Master AWB (MAWB) — issued by the airline to the freight forwarder; House AWB (HAWB) — issued by the forwarder to the shipper for consolidated (groupage) air shipments. For Russian customs clearance, the AWB is submitted along with the commercial invoice, packing list, and any required permits. Air freight weight calculation: the chargeable weight is the greater of actual weight (kg) or volumetric weight (length × width × height in cm ÷ 6,000). Transit time China to Moscow: 3–7 days. Cost: typically 4–8x higher per kg than ocean freight, justified for high-value or urgent shipments.",examples:["HAWB 555-87654321 PVG→SVO: 200 kg electronics, 5-day transit, chargeable weight = max(200kg, 150 volumetric kg) = 200 kg"],related:["bill-of-lading","cbm","freight-forwarder"]},{slug:"detention-demurrage",term:"Detention and Demurrage",shortDefinition:"Per-diem charges for exceeding the free time period for container use at the terminal (demurrage) or at the importer's premises (detention).",fullDefinition:"Demurrage and detention are the most common unexpected costs in ocean freight. Demurrage: charged by the shipping line when a container remains at the terminal beyond the free days (typically 4–7 days). Rates: $50–150 per TEU per day. Detention: charged when a container is off terminal at the importer's premises beyond free days (typically 7–14 days). Rates: $30–80 per TEU per day. Causes: slow customs clearance (documentation issues, customs queries, KTS), slow unloading at the warehouse, public holidays. Prevention: submit customs documents in advance (ideally before vessel arrival); have a warehouse ready; negotiate extended free days with the shipping line at booking time, especially for high-volume shipments; ensure all permits and certificates are obtained before arrival. If detention/demurrage are incurred, dispute them promptly with the forwarder — there is often room to negotiate reduction, especially for first-time occurrences or delays caused by the carrier.",examples:["Container at St Petersburg port for 12 days; free days = 5; demurrage = 7 × $100 = $700 added to shipment cost"],related:["fcl","etd-eta","bill-of-lading"]},{slug:"nvocc",term:"NVOCC (Non-Vessel Operating Common Carrier)",shortDefinition:"A freight intermediary that acts as a carrier to shippers (issuing House B/Ls) but books space wholesale from actual vessel operators.",fullDefinition:"An NVOCC buys container space in bulk from shipping lines and resells it to shippers at a margin, issuing its own House Bills of Lading. For the shipper, the NVOCC appears as the carrier; for the shipping line, the NVOCC is the shipper. This structure enables NVOCCs to offer competitive rates (volume buying power) and more flexible commercial terms than dealing directly with shipping lines. All major freight forwarders operate as NVOCCs. Advantages for importers: competitive LCL rates, flexibility in contract terms, single point of accountability for the cargo. Risk: if the NVOCC becomes insolvent, it may be difficult to retrieve cargo held under the NVOCC's Master B/L. Vetting: check FIATA membership, P&I insurance coverage, and financial stability. In practice, established NVOCCs with strong reputations represent minimal risk.",examples:["An NVOCC books a 40HC FCL on a Maersk vessel and offers 30 LCL slots to different importers, issuing each a House B/L"],related:["freight-forwarder","bill-of-lading","lcl","fcl"]},{slug:"cargo-insurance",term:"Cargo Insurance (Marine Insurance)",shortDefinition:"Insurance coverage for physical loss or damage to goods during international transportation.",fullDefinition:"Marine cargo insurance protects against physical loss or damage during transit. Coverage is defined by Institute Cargo Clauses (ICC): Condition A (All Risks) — broadest coverage, excluding war and nuclear risks; Condition B — named perils only; Condition C — minimum coverage (major casualties only). Condition A is the standard recommendation for commercial shipments. Insured value: typically 110% of CIF value (the extra 10% covers expected profit). Cost: 0.1–0.5% of insured value for ocean; 0.3–1.0% for air. When CIF terms are used, the seller provides insurance, but only at minimum Condition C coverage — insufficient for most commercial purposes. Recommendation: always arrange your own Condition A cargo insurance regardless of Incoterms. In the event of a claim: immediately document damage with photographs, obtain a survey report from a local surveyor, notify the insurance company within 24–48 hours, and prepare a commercial act with the carrier. Keep insurance certificates for 3+ years.",examples:["$100,000 CIF value × 110% × 0.2% Condition A rate = $220 premium for full all-risk coverage"],related:["incoterms-cif","incoterms-fob","fcl"]},{slug:"customs-value",term:"Customs Value",shortDefinition:"The taxable base for calculating import duties and VAT, generally equal to the CIF value of goods at the point of entry into the customs territory.",fullDefinition:"Customs value is the foundation of all import duty calculations. The primary method under EAEU (Eurasian Economic Union) rules — applicable to Russia — is Method 1: Transaction Value, which uses the price actually paid or payable for the goods when sold for export to Russia, adjusted to CIF basis at the Russian border. Items included in customs value: invoice price, ocean freight to the Russian border, marine insurance, loading/unloading costs prior to import. Items excluded: post-border costs (domestic delivery, Russian VAT, customs duties themselves). If customs suspects the declared value is below market benchmarks (risk profiles maintained by Federal Customs Service — ФТС), they may initiate a Customs Value Adjustment (КТС — Корректировка Таможенной Стоимости), demanding additional documentation to support the price. To defend against KTS: maintain a complete documentation file — Chinese export declaration, bank payment records, supplier price lists, and correspondence confirming the price.",examples:["FOB $10,000 + freight $1,200 + insurance $100 = customs value $11,300 × duty 5% = $565 duty; ($11,300 + $565) × 20% VAT = $2,373"],related:["incoterms-fob","incoterms-cif","hs-code","customs-broker"]},{slug:"import-vat-russia",term:"Import VAT (Russia)",shortDefinition:"Value Added Tax paid at Russian customs upon import — 20% or 10% of (customs value + import duty) — recoverable as input tax for OSNO companies.",fullDefinition:"Import VAT (ввозной НДС) is paid at the Russian border before goods are released from customs. It is charged at: 20% for most goods; 10% for food products, children's goods, books, and certain medical items (per Article 164 of the Russian Tax Code); 0% for certain technology equipment not produced in Russia. The VAT base is: (customs value + import duty). Payment: to the Federal Customs Service account before or simultaneously with customs declaration filing. For OSNO-registered companies (standard corporate tax), import VAT paid at customs is fully recoverable as input VAT credit. Required: customs declaration (ДТ) with the 'Released' stamp and a bank payment order. For companies on simplified tax systems (УСН) or individual entrepreneurs without VAT registration, import VAT is a non-recoverable cost that must be included in product cost. This 20% difference makes customs clearance method (proper ДТ vs. grey DDP) highly material for OSNO taxpayers.",examples:["Import VAT for an OSNO company: paid ₽200,000 at customs → shown in VAT return → returned as credit against sales VAT"],related:["customs-value","incoterms-ddp","customs-broker"]},{slug:"sea-waybill",term:"Sea Waybill (SWB)",shortDefinition:"A non-negotiable ocean transport document that confirms the contract of carriage and receipt of goods, but unlike a B/L, cannot be used as a document of title.",fullDefinition:"A Sea Waybill (SWB) is an alternative to a traditional Bill of Lading used when speed of cargo release is more important than title transfer. Since it is non-negotiable, the named consignee can collect the cargo without presenting the original document — reducing the risk of cargo being held at port waiting for paper documents to arrive. SWBs are preferred when: the buyer and seller have high trust (e.g., intra-company transfers); the payment is pre-paid and there is no letter of credit; cargo regularly arrives faster than paper documents can be couriered. SWBs are NOT suitable for: letter of credit transactions (banks require a B/L); situations where the cargo may be sold in transit to a different buyer. The use of eSWB (electronic Sea Waybill) is growing — carriers such as Maersk and MSC offer electronic release as standard, eliminating paper document courier costs entirely.",examples:["Manufacturer sending components to their own Russian warehouse uses a Sea Waybill — no original document needed at destination"],related:["bill-of-lading","fcl"]},{slug:"thc",term:"THC (Terminal Handling Charge)",shortDefinition:"A fee charged by the terminal operator for handling a container at the port — loading/unloading from vessels and moving within the terminal.",fullDefinition:"THC is charged at both origin and destination terminals and is separate from the ocean freight rate. It covers: crane operations to load/unload the container from/to the vessel, movement within the terminal yard, equipment use (chassis, yard tractors). THC is charged per container and varies by port and line: Shanghai THC typically $100–200/TEU; St Petersburg THC $150–250/TEU. Some carriers include THC in their all-in freight rates; others quote 'freight + THC separately.' Always confirm whether a quoted rate includes or excludes THC at both ends — this is a common source of unexpected invoices. For LCL, THC equivalent is the CFS (Container Freight Station) charge, typically $15–30/CBM. When comparing forwarder quotes, ensure the same THC inclusion/exclusion basis is used — comparing 'freight-only' against 'all-in' quotes can make the cheaper option appear $300–500 less than the actual difference.",examples:["FCL quote: '$2,000 freight' + '$180 origin THC' + '$200 destination THC' = $2,380 total port-to-port"],related:["fcl","lcl","freight-rate","detention-demurrage"]},{slug:"customs-declaration",term:"Customs Declaration (ДТ)",shortDefinition:"The official electronic document filed with customs to declare imported goods, their value, classification, and applicable taxes — required for every commercial import in Russia.",fullDefinition:"In Russia and the EAEU, the customs declaration (ДТ — Декларация на Товары) is filed electronically through the EAIS TO (Unified Automated Information System of Customs) by an accredited customs broker on behalf of the importer. It contains: full description of goods, 10-digit HS code (ТН ВЭД), customs value and calculation methodology, import duties and VAT payable, permits and certificates, details of importer and foreign supplier. The declaration is filed before goods are released from the customs warehouse. Standard processing: 1–4 hours for automatic release; inspections or document requests can extend this to several days. After the 'Release Permitted' stamp, the ДТ serves as the primary accounting document for: recovering import VAT, confirming goods origin, and supporting entries in the VAT register. The ДТ should be retained for at least 5 years for post-import audit purposes.",examples:["ДТ №10013160/120526/3098765: 10 pallets LED lighting fixtures, HS 9405.11, customs value ₽1,200,000, duty 0%, VAT ₽240,000"],related:["customs-broker","hs-code","customs-value","import-vat-russia"]},{slug:"incoterms-exw",term:"EXW (Ex Works)",shortDefinition:"Incoterms 2020 rule placing maximum responsibility on the buyer: the seller makes goods available at their premises; the buyer handles all costs and risks from that point.",fullDefinition:"Under EXW, the seller's only obligation is to make the goods available at their named premises (factory, warehouse). The buyer must: organize inland transport from the seller's location to the port, handle export customs clearance in the country of origin, arrange ocean freight and insurance, and manage import customs in the destination country. EXW in China trade presents a practical problem: export customs clearance in China must be conducted by a Chinese legal entity. If you are a foreign buyer, you cannot directly file Chinese export customs documents. This means an EXW purchase requires you to either have a local Chinese logistics agent or, in practice, the seller still handles Chinese export — making the arrangement functionally similar to FOB but with less clarity about responsibilities and costs. Recommendation: for China imports, FOB is almost always preferable to EXW — it clearly assigns the export customs responsibility to the Chinese seller while giving the buyer freight control from the port.",examples:["EXW factory Shenzhen: buyer needs to hire a local agent in Shenzhen to export the goods, adding complexity and cost"],related:["incoterms-fob","incoterms-dap","freight-forwarder"]},{slug:"cmr",term:"CMR (Road Transport Waybill)",shortDefinition:"The international transport document for road freight under the CMR Convention, used for land shipments from China via Kazakhstan or other overland routes.",fullDefinition:"CMR is the standard transport document for international road freight, governed by the UN Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR, 1956). Unlike an ocean B/L, a CMR is not a document of title — it is simply a transport contract and receipt. CMR is used for: road shipments from China through Kazakhstan to Russia, goods shipped via Mongolia-Russia land routes, and partial overland legs in multimodal shipments. Contents: sender and recipient details, carrier information, cargo description (weight, dimensions, marks), special instructions, and liability declarations. Carrier liability under CMR is limited to 8.33 SDR per kg gross weight — significantly lower than the actual value of most commercial cargo. This makes cargo insurance essential for CMR shipments. At Russian customs, CMR is submitted alongside the customs declaration as the transport document confirming the shipment's origin and route.",examples:["Road shipment Urumqi (China) → Almaty (Kazakhstan) → Moscow: CMR issued by the road carrier covers the full journey"],related:["freight-forwarder","cargo-insurance","customs-declaration"]},{slug:"freight-rate",term:"Freight Rate (Ocean Freight)",shortDefinition:"The cost charged by the shipping line to transport a container between two ports, quoted per TEU (20-foot) or FEU (40-foot), excluding terminal handling and surcharges.",fullDefinition:"Ocean freight rate is the base cost component of sea transport, charged by the carrier for moving a container from origin port to destination port. Rates are quoted as: $/TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit, 20-foot container) or $/FEU (Forty-foot Equivalent Unit, 40-foot container). FEU rates are typically 1.5–1.8× the TEU rate, not 2× — making 40-foot containers more cost-efficient per CBM when full. Rate components beyond base freight: BAF/EBS (Bunker Adjustment Factor — fuel costs, 10–30% of base), CAF (Currency Adjustment Factor), PSS (Peak Season Surcharge, active in pre-Chinese New Year and Q4 e-commerce peak). Historical context: Shanghai–Europe base rates in 2021 reached $14,000/FEU at COVID peak; normalized to $1,500–3,500/FEU by 2024–2026. Rate volatility: freight rates can move 20–50% within a quarter based on capacity and demand. Locking rates at booking provides price certainty; spot rates may be cheaper or more expensive than contract rates.",examples:["$2,200/FEU Shanghai → St Petersburg = $1,800 base + $300 BAF + $100 PSS; THC charged separately at $180 origin + $200 destination"],related:["fcl","lcl","etd-eta","thc"]},{slug:"teu",term:"TEU (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit)",shortDefinition:"The standard unit of container measurement, equal to one 20-foot container; used to measure port capacity, vessel size, and freight rates.",fullDefinition:"TEU is the universal unit for measuring containerized shipping volume. One 20-foot container = 1 TEU. One 40-foot container = 2 TEU. Applications: port statistics (e.g., 'Shanghai handled 47 million TEU in 2024'), vessel capacity ('the vessel has 24,000 TEU capacity'), freight rate quotation ('$1,200/TEU'). For the importer, TEU matters in two ways: (1) When comparing freight rates, ensure the same basis (TEU vs FEU). A $1,200/TEU rate = $2,400 for a 40-foot container; a competitor quoting $2,000/FEU is cheaper by $400. (2) When calculating container utilization: a 40HC has approximately 76 m³. Loading 45 m³ uses only 59% of capacity — but you still pay the full FCL rate. Planning consolidated orders to maximize container fill improves cost per CBM significantly.",examples:["Port throughput: 1.5 million TEU/year. Vessel: 12,000 TEU capacity. Rate: $2,400/FEU = $1,200/TEU"],related:["fcl","freight-rate"]},{slug:"multimodal-transport",term:"Multimodal Transport",shortDefinition:"The movement of cargo under a single contract using two or more transport modes — typically sea + rail or sea + road.",fullDefinition:"Multimodal transport is the norm rather than the exception for China-to-Russia freight. Common multimodal routes: Sea + Railway (fastest for Moscow delivery): Shanghai → Vladivostok by sea (7–10 days) → Moscow via Trans-Siberian Railway (7–10 days) = 18–25 days total. Sea + Road: Shanghai → St Petersburg by sea (35–45 days) → Moscow by truck (1 day) = 36–46 days door-to-door. Rail + Road (overland): China → Almaty by Chinese rail → Kazakhstan truck to Russian border → Moscow = 14–20 days. A Multimodal Transport Document (MTD) or FIATA FBL covers the entire journey under a single contract. Insurance: a single all-risk cargo insurance policy should cover all transport legs; confirm with your insurer that coverage extends to the specific modes and transit countries used. The multimodal transport operator (MTO) bears end-to-end liability for cargo under their care.",examples:["40HC container: Guangzhou factory → Yingkou port (1 day truck) → Vladivostok (ferry 4 days) → Moscow (rail 9 days) = 14 days"],related:["fcl","freight-forwarder","bill-of-lading","cargo-insurance"]},{slug:"consolidation",term:"Consolidation (CFS — Container Freight Station)",shortDefinition:"The process of combining multiple LCL shipments from different shippers into one full container at a warehouse facility.",fullDefinition:"Consolidation is the physical process behind LCL shipping. At the Container Freight Station (CFS) in the port or city of origin, a forwarder or NVOCC collects cargo from multiple shippers and loads it into one container based on destination and sailing schedule. At destination, deconsolidation (also called 'unstuffing') occurs at a destination CFS or temporary storage warehouse, where each shipper's cargo is separated and either stored for customs clearance or directly cleared. Time impact: consolidation adds 2–5 days to transit time at origin (waiting for the container to fill); deconsolidation adds 1–2 days at destination. For importers, consolidation means lower freight cost per CBM but higher per-unit handling risk. Marking cargo properly (shipper name, reference number, destination) on each package is essential to prevent misdirection during deconsolidation.",examples:["3 CBM order from Guangzhou joins other LCL cargo in a CFS → loaded into 40HC → shipped → deconsolidated at St Petersburg CFS"],related:["lcl","fcl","nvocc","cbm"]},{slug:"dangerous-goods",term:"Dangerous Goods (DG / Hazardous Materials)",shortDefinition:"Goods classified under IMDG (ocean), IATA DGR (air), or ADR (road) dangerous goods regulations requiring special packaging, documentation, and carrier approval.",fullDefinition:"Dangerous goods are regulated under international conventions by transport mode: IMDG Code (sea), IATA DGR (air), ADR (road). Classification: Class 1 (explosives), Class 2 (gases), Class 3 (flammable liquids), Class 4 (flammable solids), Class 5 (oxidizers), Class 6 (toxic), Class 7 (radioactive), Class 8 (corrosive), Class 9 (miscellaneous). For importers from China, the most commonly encountered dangerous goods category is Class 9: lithium batteries (UN3480 standalone, UN3481 in equipment). Requirements: Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS/SDS) for all DG; DG declaration with UN number, packing group, and transport mode; specialized packaging and labeling; carrier acceptance — many shipping lines have restrictions on lithium battery quantities per vessel; some carriers refuse Class 9 DG entirely. Air freight with lithium batteries: strict Wh limits (100 Wh/cell for passenger flights, 300 Wh for cargo). Non-compliance: cargo rejection at origin, port detention, potential criminal liability in case of incident.",examples:["E-scooters with Li-ion batteries → Class 9, UN3481, requires DG declaration and carrier pre-approval before booking"],related:["fcl","cargo-insurance","awb"]},{slug:"letter-of-credit",term:"Letter of Credit (L/C)",shortDefinition:"A bank instrument guaranteeing payment to the seller upon presentation of shipping documents proving that goods were shipped as specified.",fullDefinition:"A Letter of Credit is issued by the buyer's bank (issuing bank) instructing the seller's bank (advising bank) to pay the seller upon presentation of specified documents proving shipment. The L/C mechanism protects both parties: the seller is guaranteed payment if compliant documents are presented; the buyer is assured payment occurs only upon confirmed shipment per contract terms. Standard documents required: Bill of Lading (on-board B/L, not Sea Waybill), commercial invoice, packing list, certificate of origin, and sometimes: inspection certificate, insurance certificate, weight certificate. Under Incoterms 2020, FCA now allows issuance of an on-board B/L — previously a difficulty with L/C use under FCA terms. L/C costs: 0.5–2% of transaction value plus banking fees. Practical usage in China trade: L/Cs are most common for transactions above $50,000 with new suppliers. SMB importers typically start with TT (telegraphic transfer/wire transfer) prepayment once supplier trust is established.",examples:["$300,000 machinery purchase from new Chinese supplier under Irrevocable L/C — payment released upon presentation of on-board B/L"],related:["bill-of-lading","incoterms-fob","cargo-insurance"]},{slug:"certificate-of-origin",term:"Certificate of Origin",shortDefinition:"An official document certifying the country of origin of goods, required by customs for applying preferential tariff rates or anti-dumping duty exemptions.",fullDefinition:"A Certificate of Origin (CO) is issued by an authorized body in the exporting country — for China: CCPIT (China Council for the Promotion of International Trade) or Chinese customs. Uses in Russia/EAEU: applying anti-dumping duty exemptions for specific manufacturers; proving origin for goods where customs requires manufacturer verification; meeting documentary requirements for certain categories. Types relevant to China-Russia trade: Form CO or standard Certificate of Origin — confirms country of manufacture; issued per consignment. Anti-dumping: if anti-dumping duties apply to a specific HS code and manufacturer, the CO proves the goods are from a duty-exempt producer. Important: 'Made in China' on the packaging is not equivalent to an official Certificate of Origin. Russian customs requires a CO issued on CCPIT official form with stamp and signature. Request the CO from your supplier before shipment — it cannot be obtained after goods have left China.",examples:["Anti-dumping duty on steel pipes from specific Chinese mills: CO required to prove goods come from a non-listed mill"],related:["hs-code","customs-declaration","freight-forwarder"]}];export{a as E,o as a,r as g};